QUESTION #1
Describe a specific example that clearly demonstrates an understanding of how each of the following concepts can lead to an inaccurate perception, cognition, or conclusion. Each example must include an explanation of the relationship between the concept and the inaccuracy.
Afterimage effect (chapter 5)
Lack of object permanence (chapter 4)
Nonrandom assignment of research participants (chapter 1)
Proactive interference (chapter 9)
QUESTION #2
Psychologists conduct research to investigate controversial issues. Consider the following:
Nature and Nurture
Continuity versus Stages: The belief of continuous development versus stage theories (Erikson, Piaget) of development (chapter 4)
Dreaming (chapter 7)
Explanations of hypnosis (chapter 7)
Part A. Describe opposing points of view on each of the psychological issues listed above. If there are more than two theories for an issue, choose two to describe.
Part B. For each issue, choose one point of view to support. Using evidence from psychological research, justify why you think this point of view is correct.
QUESTION #3
Time is an important variable in many psychological concepts. Describe a specific example that clearly demonstrates an understanding of each of the following concepts and how it relates to or is affected by time. Use a different example for each concept.
Critical period (chapter 4)
Fluid intelligence (chapter 4)
Refractory period in neural firing (chapter 2)
Sound localization (chapter 5)
Next, here are some useful charts and simple lists to help you study:
Research Data and Methods
Key Concepts | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
Research | Scientific Method Theory Hypotheses Operational definitions Replication Validity/reliability | Dispel “Belief Bias” Dispel illusory correlations Informs Basic Research (knowledge) and Applied (practical solutions) Research Longitudinal/Cross-sectional design | Ethical or methodological breaches |
Descriptive Methods | Case Studies Surveys Correlational Studies – how two or more factors relate to each other Direct correlation Indirect (inverse) correlation | Detailed study of 1 or more cases in great depth to suggest hypotheses to test, i.e Freud’s cases, Piaget’s children A method to describe and make correlations; many “cases, ” less depth compared to case studies; data based on individual reports/opinions Some “economy” reaching larger numbers of respondents, perhaps using mailouts. May be used to predict tendencies, never causal (cause and effect) relationships | Given cases may be atypical, limited generalizability to larger groups (external validity) Wording effects/”framing” issues, i.e. “aid to the needy” or “welfare;” Sampling errors like sample size (too small) or sample selection (not random) |
Experimental Methods | Experiments | Clearest way to determine cause and effect relationship by manipulating a variable (IV) and recording changes in the dependent variable (DV) Control – random selection of subjects and random assignment to experimental and control groups; Single/double blind to control placebo Objective (statistical data) comparisons, i.e. central tendency (means/medians) and variability (standard deviation) | Confounding/extraneous (uncontrolled) variables bias results. Laboratory presents an “artificial” situation that may reduce real-world application or generalizability (external validity). Methodological Errors (internal validity) Experimenter Bias/Expectancy effects Conditional bias (physical) – temperature, time of day Order effects |
AP PSYCH EXAM REVIEW SHEET: Famous Contributors and Experiments
Roger Sperry = The first to propose "split-brain surgery" to help epileptic patients.
Jean Piaget = Proposed four stages of cognitive development. (Remember the acronym Socks Pulled Over Cold Feet to remember these in order.) Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete, and Formal Stages.
Erik Erikson = Proposed eight stages of psychosocial development. (KNOW THESE!!)
Lawrence Kohlberg = Proposed three stages of MORAL development. (all framed around the word conventional.) This theory was criticized as it only tested young children by framing hypothetical situations for them and their responses to these. It did not test cross-culturally and between the genders.
Konrad Lorentz = Imprinting studies. Showed how baby animals would follow the first object they saw after birth. Believed to be a built-in survival mechanism.
Jerome Kagan = Studies to indicate that in-born temperament may explain many behaviors.
Harry Harlow = Showed importance of physical touch over nourishment in infant monkeys.
Mary Ainsworth = Secure infants have good bonds with mothers. Reverse is also true.
Elenor Gibson = The "visual cliff experiment". Showed that depth perception cues are innate.
Hubel and Weisel = Studies with monkeys to show that they had specific FEATURE DECECTORS to aid them in visual processing. (Some for lines, bars, edges, shapes, etc.)
Ernest Hilgard = Studies showing that a hypnotic trance includes a "hidden observer' suggesting that there is some subconscious control during hypnosis.
Ivan Pavlov = Famous for his classical conditioning experiments.
Robert Rescorla = Proposed that there is conscious connection between the CS and the DCS in classical conditioning experiments. (A smoker is aware that a nausea-producing drug will affect his behavior.)
John B. Watson = Famous for the controversial Little Albert classical conditioning experiment.
B.F. Skinner = Famous for me "Skinner Box to demonstrate operant conditioning in low level animals.
Albert Bandura = “Bo-Bo Doll" Experiment to demonstrate how children imitate anti-social behavior.
Wolfgang Kohler = Demonstrated the use of "insight" in apes when they used sticks to reach a banana that was out of reach.
Stanford-Binet = Modern IQ formula. MA divided by CA times 100.
David Wechsler = modern IQ tests with specialized subtests and use of factor analysis.
Abraham Maslow = The humanistic perspective
Elizabeth Loftus - ''Misinformation Effect" shown in memory studies.
Martin Seligman = "Learned Helplessness Experiment" with dogs. Showed the external locus affect in animals (generalized to depression with humans.)
Confusing Pairs
Independent Variable (What is tested) vs. Dependent Variable (What is measured)
(Ex: Recess to test attention span; recess is independent, attention span is dependent)
Random selection (of subjects for a study) vs. Random Assignment (of subjects to experimental or control groups in a study)
Experimental Group (group that is tested) vs. Control Group (compared to the experimental, i.e. receives the placebo in a drug experiment.)
Left Brain (Language and Logic) vs. Right Brain (Creative and Spatial)
Corpus Callosum (divides the brain) vs. Cerebral Cortex (covers the brain)
Sympathetic Nervous System ("flight-or-fight") vs. Parasympathetic (calming)
Neurotransmitters (in the nervous system) vs. Hormones (in the endocrine system)
Lateral Hypothalamus (stimulates hunger) vs. Ventromedial Hypothalamus (suppresses hunger)
Broca's Area (makes words) vs. Wernicke’s Area (comprehends words)
Identical Twins (Same fertilized egg) vs. Fraternal Twins (Two separate eggs)
Afferent Neurons (Sensory, body to the brain) vs. Efferent Neurons (Motor, brain to the body)
Assimilation (All four-legged animals are "doggies") vs. Accommodation ("Doggies are different than "Kitties")
Concrete Operations (logical thinking) vs. Formal Operations (Philosophical thinking)
Sensation (Bottom-up Processing) vs. Perception (Top-Down Processing)
Rods (night vision) vs. Cones (color vision)
Classical Conditioning (Involuntary) vs. Operant Conditioning (Voluntary)
Positive Reinforcement (any reward following a desirable behavior that increases the behavior) vs. Negative Reinforcement (removal of an undesireable stimulus as a reward to increase desired behavior)
Primacy Effect (first items remembered) vs. Recency Effect (last items remembered)
Proactive Interference (loss of the new info) vs. Retroactive Interference (loss of the old info)
Implicit Memory (nondeclarative; skills) vs. Explicit Memory (declarative, facts)
Recall Memory (no cues/fill-in) vs. Recognition Memory (Some hints/multiple choice, matching)
Latent content (what your dream means) vs. Manifest content (the actual storyline of the dream)
Fluid Intelligence ("Brain power") vs. Crystallized Intelligence (Acquired knowledge)
Validity (test measure what it should) vs. Reliability (Same scores on a retest)
Achievement test (What you've learned) vs. Aptitude test (what y6u can do)
Intrinsic Motivation (for personal satisfaction) vs. Extrinsic Motivation (for rewards or to avoid punishment)
Internal Locus (controlling the environment) vs. External Locus (the environment controls you.)
